Reverse Bias Protected Solar Array With Integrated Bypass Battery

ABSTRACT

A method for protecting the photovoltaic cells in a photovoltaic (PV) way from reverse bias damage by utilizing a rechargeable battery for bypassing current from a shaded photovoltaic cell or group of cells, avoiding the need for a bypass diode. Further, the method mitigates the voltage degradation of a PV array caused by shaded cells.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS Divisional

This application is a divisional of U.S. patent application Ser. No.11/696,441, filed Apr. 4, 2007, issued as U.S. Pat. No. ______, theentire disclosure of which is hereby incorporated by reference herein.

ORIGIN OF THE INVENTION

The invention described herein was made by an employee of the UnitedStates Government, and may be manufactured and used by or for theGovernment for Government purposes without the payment of any royaltiesthereon or therefore.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

This application relates generally to the protection of photovoltaiccells from reverse bias damage.

More specifically, this application relates to protecting thephotovoltaic cells of a photovoltaic (PV) array from reverse bias damageby utilizing a rechargeable battery for bypassing current from a shadedphotovoltaic cell or group of cells. Further, the invention mitigatesthe voltage degradation of a PV array caused by shaded cells.

Photovoltaic (PV) arrays, also known as solar arrays, are typicallycomprised of a plurality of photovoltaic cells (also known as solarcells) arranged in series in order to increase the voltage level of a PVarray to a more usable amount, typically to 28-30 volts or even 120volts. A plurality of series connected PV cells can then be connected inparallel to increase the current (and power) capability of the PV array.PV arrays are used extensively for terrestrial, orbital, andextra-terrestrial (e.g., planetary or interplanetary) uses.

These individual photovoltaic cells are typically constructed of acrystalline or amorphous silicon, or some other semiconductor material,such as the commonly used Gallium Arsenide (GaAs). When exposed tosunlight, these PV cells typically generate a voltage ranging from 0.50to 2.5 volts each, depending on the materials used. The voltage of thePV portion of the device is determined by the nature of the p-n junctionof the photovoltaic cell, or, in other words, the materials used. In thecase of a GaAs homo-junction device this will be around 1.0 V. Forthin-film a-Si or CulnSe2 (CIS) PV, the voltage generated will besomewhat less (0.4-0.8 V). Accordingly, strings of 30 or morephotovoltaic cells are typically strung in a series to form a solararray in order to gain the desired output voltage.

Individual arrays of a series connected plurality of PV cells may thenbe placed in parallel in order to increase the total current and powercapacity of the resulting entire PV array. A multiplicity of such arrayscould further be combined to increase the power availability even more.The voltage output of individual arrays or the combination of arrays canthen be modified using a DC-to-DC converters and/or a DC-to-AC invertersto generate a voltage useful for the typical electrical loads to bepowered.

However, a problem arises when individual cells of the series connectedphotovoltaic cells are not generating electricity, such as when somesubset of cells is shaded, for example. Because the current throughseries connected PV cells must pass through each cell in the series, ifone or more individual PV cells are shaded, the current generated by theunshaded cells in the solar array must pass through the shaded cells aswell.

This current through the shaded cell(s) results in a reverse bias acrossthe cell, and can lead to “hot-spot” heating, which can damage theshaded cell. This problem is well-known in the art, and is also called“reverse-bias degradation”, “breakdown”, “shading”, and “shadowing”effects, for example. In the extreme, such “hot-spot” heating candestroy a photovoltaic cell, and thus degrade the array, or make ituseless.

FIG. 1 shows a graphical example of such “hot-spot” heating, with curve14 showing the operating points of 30 unshadowed cells (with point 14representing the operating point with a partially shadowed cell) andwith curve 11 representing the single, partially shadowed cell,operating far at the reverse bias point 12. Line Z represents a constantcurrent line, and line H the nominal operating voltage. Quadrant Arepresents a reverse-bias, power dissipating area whereas quadrant Brepresents the power generating forward bias area.

Most localized shadowing, however, is transient, lasting only seconds orminutes. Shadowing of the entire solar array is not relevant to theabove problem, because only partial or uneven shadowing leads to the“hot-spot” heating effect.

Conventional approaches for protecting the individual cells of a solararray include putting a “bypass diode” in parallel with eachphotovoltaic cell. FIG. 2 shows such an implementation. The bypass diodethen shunts the series current of the solar array from the one or morecells that are shaded, protecting the shaded cells from damage.

Nevertheless, there are undesirable side-effects to this traditionalapproach. For example, the entire solar array loses operating voltagewhenever one or more cells is shadowed. The amount of this voltagedegradation is determined from the voltage no longer generated by theindividual shaded cell(s), plus the turn-on voltage of the correspondingbypass diode(s), typically leading to a net voltage drop across theshaded cell, in contrast to the typical voltage rise of a voltagegenerating, unshaded cell. If the voltage of the solar array drops belowthe required bus voltage of the solar array, the entire array may notproduce useful power. In practice, a shadow of as little as one percentmight block one-hundred percent of the solar array output.

Accordingly, an approach that can overcome the above identifiedshortcomings would be desirable.

Further, it would be useful to utilized thin-film manufacturingprocesses for implementing the invention. Thin-film photovoltaic (TFPV)power generation has been under development for some time. TFPV samplecells and panels have flown in space. The principle benefits of TFPVarrays include very high mass specific power (W/kg), radiation toleranceand good stowability. The mission benefits of TFPV solar arrays havebeen identified, and may be realized when full scale TFPV arrays areconstructed and space qualified.

In comparison to TFPV power generation, thin-film energy storage (TFES)is a relatively recent development. Very small thin-film lithium-ionbatteries have been developed and tested in the lab for use inmulti-chip modules (MCMs). With a typical operating range between 3.0 Vand 4.2 V, the useable capacity of these initial TFES batteries is verysmall, ranging from 0.2 to 10 mAh/cm2. The energy capacities ofthin-film batteries are typically too low to allow thin-film batteriesto serve as primary energy storage for an array, but, can prove usefulto solving some of the problems identified above.

Because of the similarity in the materials and processes that go intoTFPV and TFES devices, it is practical to consider a combination of thetwo technologies. Further, a solution that in addition to providingprotection against hot-spot heating, also enables some energy storagecapability for momentary shading of the entire army, would add desirableadditional benefit to the design.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

Provided is a photovoltaic array comprising a photovoltaic batteryincluding a photovoltaic cell and rechargeable battery connected inparallel with the photovoltaic battery, wherein, when the photovoltaiccell is shaded, the rechargeable battery shunts an array currentincluding current not generated by said rechargeable battery from thephotovoltaic cell that is shaded.

Also provided is a photovoltaic array comprising a plurality ofphotovoltaic modules connected in series, each photovoltaic moduleincluding a photovoltaic battery having a photovoltaic cell; and arechargeable battery having a rechargeable cell and connected inparallel with the photovoltaic battery.

Further provided is a photovoltaic army comprising: a photovoltaicbattery including a photovoltaic cell; and a rechargeable batteryconnected in parallel with the photovoltaic battery. When thephotovoltaic cell is shaded, the rechargeable battery is used forcompensating for a voltage drop of the photovoltaic battery due to theshaded photovoltaic cell while the photovoltaic array is generatinguseable power from light.

Still further provided is a photovoltaic module comprising aphotovoltaic battery including a photovoltaic cell and a rechargeablebattery connected to the photovoltaic battery for shunting a currentfrom the photovoltaic battery when the photovoltaic cell is shaded toprotect the photovoltaic cell.

Even further provided is a photovoltaic array comprising a photovoltaicbattery including a plurality of photovoltaic cells connected in series;and a rechargeable battery including at least one rechargeable cell andconnected in parallel with the photovoltaic battery. When one or more ofthe plurality of photovoltaic cells is shaded, the rechargeable batteryshunts an array current of the photovoltaic array from the photovoltaicbattery to protect the one or more shaded photovoltaic cells from damagefrom the array current while the photovoltaic array is generating powerfrom light.

And provided is a photovoltaic army comprising: a plurality ofphotovoltaic modules connected in series. Each photovoltaic moduleincludes: a photovoltaic battery having one or more photovoltaic cellsconnected in series; and a rechargeable battery having one or morerechargeable cells connected in series.

The rechargeable battery is connected in parallel with the photovoltaicbattery. The rechargeable battery is for shunting an anay current of thephotovoltaic array from the photovoltaic battery when at least one ofthe photovoltaic cells is shaded to protect the shaded photovoltaiccells from damage from the array current while the photovoltaic army isgenerating power, and the rechargeable battery is also for compensatingfor a voltage drop of the shaded photovoltaic cells while thephotovoltaic array is generating useful power.

And even further provided is an integrated power supply comprising aphotovoltaic cell; and a rechargeable battery connected to thephotovoltaic cell. The rechargeable battery is integrated with thephotovoltaic cell on a thin-film substrate.

Additionally provided is an integrated power supply comprising aphotovoltaic battery including a photovoltaic cell; and a rechargeablebattery including a rechargeable cell. The rechargeable battery isconnected in parallel with the photovoltaic battery, and therechargeable cell is integrated with the photovoltaic cell on athin-film substrate.

Also provided is an integrated power supply comprising a plurality ofmodules connected in series. Each module includes: a photovoltaicbattery including one or more photovoltaic cells; a rechargeable batteryincluding one or more rechargeable cells; and a blocking diode forconnecting one terminal of the photovoltaic battery to one terminal ofthe rechargeable battery (such as connecting the diode in series withthe photovoltaic battery, for example).

The rechargeable battery is connected in parallel with the photovoltaicbattery, and the rechargeable battery is for shunting a current of thephotovoltaic array from the photovoltaic battery when one or more of thephotovoltaic cells is shaded to protect the one or more of the pluralityof photovoltaic cells that are shaded from damage from the current whilethe photovoltaic array is generating power from light.

The rechargeable battery is also for compensating for a voltage drop ofthe shaded photovoltaic cell while the integrated power supply isgenerating power from light, and the rechargeable cells are integratedwith the photovoltaic cells on a thin-film substrate.

Each module also includes conditioning and control electronics forconditioning and controlling a charging and/or discharging current ofthe integrated power supply.

And further provided is a photovoltaic array comprising a plurality ofPV modules connected in series. Each PV module includes: a photovoltaicbattery having one or more photovoltaic cells connected in series; arechargeable battery having one or more rechargeable cells connected inseries, and a blocking diode for connecting an electrode of thephotovoltaic battery connected to an electrode of the rechargeablebattery. The rechargeable battery has another electrode connected toanother electrode of the photovoltaic battery, and the blocking diodeprevents the rechargeable battery from discharging through thephotovoltaic battery.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 shows the graph of current as a function of voltage for aphotovoltaic array, and shows as a graphical plot the reverse-bias “hotspot” heating on a shaded PV cell;

FIG. 2 shows a PV cell protected by a bypass diode;

FIG. 3 is a schematic of an embodiment of the invention showing arechargeable battery in parallel with a PV cell;

FIG. 4 is a schematic of another embodiment showing a rechargeablebattery connected in parallel with a serially connected pair of PVcells;

FIG. 5 is a schematic of still another embodiment showing a plurality ofseries connected rechargeable cells forming a rechargeable batteryconnected in parallel with a pair of series connected PV cells forming aPV battery;

FIG. 6 is a schematic of a generic embodiment with a to be determinednumber of PV cells forming a PV battery and a to be determined number ofrechargeable cells forming a rechargeable battery.

FIG. 7 is a representation of the thin-film PV cell and rechargeablebattery cell;

FIG. 8 is a representation of the schematic of FIG. 3 using thethin-film representation of FIG. 7 and adding a blocking diode.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

FIG. 2 shows the traditional means of protecting a solar army fromshadowing effects which can cause hot-spot heating as shown in the graphof FIG. 1. (Note that a single photovoltaic cell is conventionallyrepresented in a circuit diagram as a current source plus a diode, wherethe diode represents the p-n junction, an integral part of the cell) Inthis means of shadow protection, the photovoltaic cell 20 is paralleledwith a bypass diode 22. A number of such cells, each with bypass diode,is then connected in series to form a photovoltaic array. As discussedin the Background section above, however, such an implementation hasundesirable side-effects.

Disclosed herein is a means of preventing hot-spot heating duringtransient shadow by placing a rechargeable battery 30 in parallel withthe photovoltaic cell 20, as shown in FIG. 3. In the resulting design,the “hot-spot” destruction of a shadowed photovoltaic cell can beavoided without using a bypass diode. The battery is charged by thenormal, sunlit operation of the photovoltaic cell, but when thephotovoltaic cell is shadowed, the majority of the solar array currentflows through the battery instead of the photovoltaic cell, therebyprotecting the PV cell.

For example, a typical transient shadow on a spacecraft (such as anantenna shadow) may last for about two minutes. The eclipse time for aspacecraft in low orbit, for comparison, is about 40 minutes. If thearmy provides one amp of current, shadow protection by a diode willrequire a battery of storage capacity 33 milliamp-hours, while providinga storage for eclipse power requires a battery of storage capacity 667milliamp hours. Thus, it is clear that the shadow protection functioncan be accomplished by a battery of considerably lower storage capacitythan that required for eclipse power. (However, if the battery also islarge enough in capacity to provide eclipse power, this would be anadded benefit.). For use on the surface of the Earth, the situation iseven worse. Using a battery to provide 12 hours of night-time powerwould require 12,000 milliamp-hours of storage, considerably more thanthe 33 milliamp-hours required to provide protection for a two minuteshadow.

In addition, because the rechargeable battery 30 generates a voltage ofits own, the degradation of the voltage of the series connected arraycan be greatly reduced to only the difference between the typical shadedPV cell voltage when in sunlight and the battery voltage. This voltagedifference can be minimized by closely matching the battery voltage ofthe chosen battery to that of the chosen individual photovoltaic cellgenerating voltage. Because there are alternative battery and solar celldesigns available, many potential embodiments exist. Close matching alsoensures that the photovoltaic cell 20 does, not overcharge, and thusdamage, the rechargeable battery 30. Alternatively, protective circuitsincorporated within the device (such as within the battery) couldprevent battery overcharging or maintain the desired battery voltage.

Of course, this lack of voltage degradation lasts only as long as therechargeable battery can maintain its charge. As the battery charge isdepleted, the array voltage will begin to degrade. However, because mostcell shadowing during array use is transitory, by choosing batteries ofsufficient energy storage capability, the array can be designed to avoidsuch degradation under most circumstances.

Unfortunately, matching battery voltages to photovoltaic cell voltagescan be problematic. Thus, examples of alternative configurations areshown in FIGS. 4, 5 & 6. These configurations all show a basicphotovoltaic module using a photovoltaic battery with one or morephotovoltaic cells connected in series. Further, the photovoltaicbattery may have additional protection and/or conditioning circuits. Thephotovoltaic module also uses a rechargeable battery having one or morerechargeable cells connected in series. Again, the rechargeable batterymay have additional conditioning and/or protection circuits. Therechargeable battery is then connected in parallel to the photovoltaicbattery. Additional electronics could be added to the module forconditioning and/or protection instead of, or in addition to, anyadditional electronics in either of the batteries.

FIG. 4 shows a particular photovoltaic module with a rechargeablebattery 41 placed in parallel with a pair of series connectedphotovoltaic cells 40 (the PV cells 40 thereby forming a photovoltaicbattery 42). Thus, a single rechargeable battery 41 protects thephotovoltaic battery 42 comprising the series-connected pair ofphotovoltaic cells 40. This approach allows the rechargeable batteryvoltage to be approximately double the individual photovoltaic cellvoltages.

As an example of an implementation of FIG. 4, one 4.2 Volt Lithium Co0₂rechargeable battery could protect a pair of 2.1 Volt dual-junctionseries connected photovoltaic cells.

A further alternative would be to use more than one series connectedrechargeable cell (forming a rechargeable battery) to protect a singlephotovoltaic cell. Thus, even more flexibility can be provided forengineering an optimum solution. An example of this implementation wouldbe using two 1.2 Volt series connected NiCd or NiH battery cells toprotect a single 2.5 Volt triple-junction photovoltaic cell.

FIG. 5 shows another alternative photovoltaic module using twoseries-connected photovoltaic cells 50 (forming a photovoltaic battery52) with three series-connected rechargeable cells 51 (forming arechargeable battery 54). The photovoltaic battery 52 is connected inparallel with the rechargeable battery 54. For this implementation, eachrechargeable cell 51 should have a charged voltage of about ⅔ of thevoltage of a single photovoltaic cell 50. Thus, the rechargeable battery54 comprised of the series of three rechargeable cells 51 should haveapproximately the same voltage as the photovoltaic battery 52 comprisedof the series of two photovoltaic cells 50.

Finally, FIG. 6 shows a flexible generic configuration of a photovoltaicmodule having a to-be-determined number of PV cells 60 and ato-be-determined number of rechargeable cells 61. The number of PV cellsand battery cells, which do not have to be equal, is determined usingthe design constraints discussed above and below. However, a designusing a single PV cell and/or a single rechargeable battery cell asshown in FIG. 3 could also be utilized.

Thus, FIG. 6 allows for additional variations to utilize various numbersof photovoltaic cells connected in series to form a photovoltaicbattery, and then connected in parallel to one or more rechargeablecells connected in series forming a rechargeable battery. In thismanner, rechargeable battery voltage 64 can be accurately matched to thephotovoltaic battery voltage 62, allowing a wide variation ofrechargeable cell and/or photovoltaic cell design materials to beutilized and voltages to be closely matched. An optional blocking diode65 can be made part of the photovoltaic battery, for example, to preventthe rechargeable battery 64 from discharging through the photovoltaicbattery 62. A blocking diode could be utilized in any of the embodimentsdiscussed above in a similar manner for the same reason.

Still, care must be taken to ensure that the final approach does notresult in too many photovoltaic cells in series being protected by arechargeable battery because of the potential of hot-spot heating. Ifonly a single photovoltaic cell of a protected series is shadowed, therewould be a reverse-bias voltage on that shadowed cell equal to thevoltage generated by the unshadowed photovoltaic cells of that series.If too many photovoltaic cells are utilized in series, then damage tothe shadowed cell is again possible due to hot-spot heating.

Accordingly, there will likely be an upper limit on the number ofphotovoltaic cells that can be safely and serially connected together tobe connected to a rechargeable battery. That upper limit will depend onthe type of photovoltaic cell and its material composition, for example.Thus, care must be taken in determining how many serial photovoltaiccells should be protected by a single rechargeable battery cell orseries of rechargeable cells. The optimum number will depend on thematerials chosen for the photovoltaic cells and the desirablerechargeable battery choice. Hence, engineering tradeoffs must be made.In practice, then, the greatest protective benefit is likely to beobtained when the number of cells series connected and protected by asingle battery or string of series-connected cells is about five orfewer.

Finally, a photovoltaic array is created by stringing any number ofphotovoltaic modules together in series, forming a series array.Further, any number of series arrays could also be connected in parallelto form an even higher current/power army. In this manner, thephotovoltaic modules become building blocks for building photovoltaicarrays, and thus provide great flexibility in forming a variety of arraysizes and capacities for various applications. At the same time, anyshaded photovoltaic cells in a given module are protected from hot-spotheating damage by the current bypassing action of the correspondingrechargeable battery. In this manner, no bypass diodes need beintegrated with the photovoltaic cells to protect them.

A further enhancement of the invention is to use rechargeable thin-filmbattery technology in conjunction with photovoltaic cell fabricationprocesses to integrate the thin-film battery with the photovoltaic cellon a substrate as shown in FIG. 7, which shows a photovoltaic cell 70having the semiconductor layer(s) 71 covered by a front metalizationlayer 72 and a back metalization layer 73 for providing the batteryelectrodes. This photovoltaic cell 70 can be combined with a thin-filmbattery 65 having a negative (anode) layer 76, a electrolyte layer 77,and a positive (cathode) layer 78. These can be combined as shown inFIG. 8 to form an Integrated Power Supply (IPS), with electricalconnections 82 and 83 to allow the integrated power supply to beconnected in series with additional IPS units to form an array.Optionally, a blocking diode 81 may be used to prevent the battery fromdischarging through the PV array during eclipse. A blocking diode ismost useful to protect across multiple IPSs and less beneficial if oneis put on each IPS. A tab 79 is shown indicating the electricalconnection to the center layer of the sandwich.

The battery in this example FIG. 8 is shown with the negative (cathode)layer on the top side in contact with the solar cell back metallization;however, the configuration of battery with the positive layer connectedto the solar cell back metallization can also be used, and is preferablefor the n on p polarity of cell. If an electrically insulating layer isused between the solar cell back metallization 73 and the battery, theneither configuration (anode on top or cathode on top) will function. Ifthe solar cell back metallization is electrically connected to thebattery, then the preferred configuration for a p-on-n type solar cellis to have the negative battery electrode on the side in contact withthe solar cell; and for the n on p polarity of cell the configuration ofbattery with the positive layer connected to the solar cell backmetallization is preferable.

Because of the similarity in the materials and processes that go intoTFPV and TFES devices, it is practical to consider combination of thetwo to practice the invention. It is feasible to combine a TFPV cell ona substrate material (such as Kapton® made by DuPont, for example) witha Li-ion thin-film battery sandwiched in the substrate material. Withthe further addition of very small power conditioning and controlelectronics, a compact and useful Integrated Power Source (IPS) ispossible.

The voltage of a Li-ion battery is based on its chemistry and isprimarily determined by the material used in its cathode. A vanadiumpentoxide or manganese oxide battery will have an open circuit voltageof 3.0 V, whereas a nickel cobalt cell will be 4.2 V.

In a way similar to PV cells, Li battery cells can be connected inseries configurations to produce different voltages. However, the amountof energy that can be stored in a cell, its capacity, is determinedprimarily by its volume. Thus for a thin-film Li-ion battery, thecapacity will be determined in the same way the current capability ofthe PV cell is determined—by the area of the device. The size alsoimpacts the rate at which a battery can be charged and discharged (i.e.,the smaller the battery the smaller the charging and dischargingcurrents it can handle).

Ideally, in order to minimize the control electronics associated with abattery, the photovoltaic array should be designed such that its outputvoltage matches the voltage needs of the battery and its current outputis sufficient to charge the battery while simultaneously providing powerto the load. The precise sizing of the array and battery will also bedependent on the duration of shadow.

The matching of the solar array and batteries for these small powersystems is essential as the parasitic power loss in a conventionalcharge controller normally used in a larger power system might actuallyexceed the output of a small IPS. Once the PV and battery are matched,the only additional components required are a blocking diode if it isdesired to prevent the battery from discharging through the PV arrayduring eclipse.

The Li-ion batteries play a large role in determining the temperatureregime in which these systems are suitable. Li-ion cells will deliver asizeable fraction (i.e. 80%) of their capacity at temperatures as low as−20° C. Below such a temperature they do not perform well. However, theydo not exhibit permanent damage if they are cycled between largertemperatures regimes (i.e., plus or minus 80° C.). The high temperatureperformance is much less of an issue with thin-film Li-ion batteries asthey have been shown to operate well at temperatures up to 60° C.

The invention has been described hereinabove using specific examples andembodiments; however, it will be understood by those skilled in the artthat various alternatives may be used and equivalents may be substitutedfor elements or steps described herein, without deviating from the scopeof the invention. Modifications may be necessary to adapt the inventionto a particular situation or to particular needs without departing fromthe scope of the invention. It is intended that the invention not belimited to the particular implementation described herein, but that theclaims be given their broadest interpretation to cover all embodiments,literal or equivalent, covered thereby.

1. (canceled)
 2. A photovoltaic array with tolerance to damage frompartial shading comprising: a plurality of modules connected in seriesfor producing an electric current, each of the modules comprising atleast one photovoltaic cell connected in parallel with at least onebattery; wherein during temporary shading from a light source of one ormore, but not all, of the modules, the remainder of the modules remainlit by the light source to produce electric current; and wherein, duringtemporary shading, the battery of the one or more shaded modules shuntsthe electric current within the respective module to protect the arrayfrom hot-spot damage.
 3. The photovoltaic array of claim 2, wherein themodules do not use any shunting diodes for protection.
 4. Thephotovoltaic array of claim 2, wherein the battery is integrated withthe photovoltaic cell on a thin-film substrate.
 5. The photovoltaicarray of claim 2, wherein the battery is a rechargeable battery.
 6. Thephotovoltaic array of claim 2, wherein the battery compensates for avoltage drop of the photovoltaic cell that is shaded while thephotovoltaic array is generating power from light.
 7. The photovoltaicarray of claim 2, wherein the at least one battery is sized for carryinga specified current without damage.
 8. The photovoltaic array of claim2, wherein the at least one battery is sized with a storage capacitysufficient for providing energy during the period of temporary partialshading of the array, but not sufficiently large for providing energyduring a substantial majority of an eclipse or nighttime period.
 9. Thephotovoltaic array of claim 2, wherein the array is mounted on aspacecraft placed in orbit around a body, and wherein the temporaryshading is due to a part of the spacecraft at least partially blockinglight from part of the array.
 10. The photovoltaic array of claim 2,wherein the photovoltaic cell and the battery are thin-film devicesintegrated on a common substrate.
 11. A photovoltaic array withtolerance to damage from partial shading comprising: a plurality ofmodules connected in series for producing an electric current, each ofthe modules comprising at least (N) photovoltaic cells connected inparallel with at least (M) batteries; wherein during temporary shadingfrom a light source of one or more, but not all, of the modules, theremainder of the modules remain lit by the light source to produceelectric current; and wherein, during temporary shading, the battery ofthe one or more shaded modules shunts the electric current within therespective module to protect the array from hot-spot damage.
 12. Thephotovoltaic array of claim 11, wherein the maximum power voltage fromthe (N) photovoltaic cells is substantially equal to the battery voltagefrom the (M) batteries.
 13. The photovoltaic array of claim 12, wherein(N) and (M) are natural numbers.
 14. The photovoltaic array of claim 11,wherein the modules do not use any shunting diodes for protection. 15.The photovoltaic array of claim 11, wherein the battery is integratedwith the photovoltaic cell on a thin-film substrate.
 16. Thephotovoltaic array of claim 11, wherein the battery is a rechargeablebattery.
 17. The photovoltaic array of claim 11, wherein the batterycompensates for a voltage drop of the photovoltaic cell that is shadedwhile the photovoltaic array is generating power from light.
 18. Thephotovoltaic array of claim 11, wherein the at least one battery issized for carrying a specified current without damage.
 19. Thephotovoltaic array of claim 11, wherein the at least one battery issized with a storage capacity sufficient for providing energy during theperiod of temporary partial shading of the array, but not sufficientlylarge for providing energy during a substantial majority of an eclipseor nighttime period.
 20. The photovoltaic array of claim 11, wherein thearray is mounted on a spacecraft placed in orbit around a body, andwherein the temporary shading is due to a part of the spacecraft atleast partially blocking light from part of the array.
 21. Thephotovoltaic array of claim 11, wherein the photovoltaic cell and thebattery are thin-film devices integrated on a common substrate.